Gender representations in advertising during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.4000/cp.12548Keywords:
advertising, confinement, gender representation, brandsAbstract
This article presents a reflection on gender representations and stereotypes in advertising, during the period corresponding to the first national confinement, from March to May 2020 in Portugal. The purpose of this study is to analyze the representation of men and women in prime time television advertisements, as well as to understand how brands relate to the pandemic context through their slogans.
For this purpose, a methodology that combines the models of Wasike (2017), Baker (2005) and Saborit (2012) and which aggregates seven categories was used.
The carried out analysis revealed gender discrepancies in the representations of the different social roles in advertising content. A common trait found in the analyzed contents was the predominance of interior scenarios, something that portrays the context of confinement experienced by the population, however, these scenarios are represented with different meanings for women (kitchen, living room, balcony) and for men (the workplace).
These differences acquire special scientific relevance, given the fact that advertising content, in times of social change, assumes a particularly important role in the construction of new meanings associated with context changes.
Downloads
References
Amâncio, L. (2000). Identidade social e relações intergrupais. In J. Vala & M. B. Monteiro (Eds.), Psicologia Social. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian.
Apflebaum, E. (1979). Relations of domination and movements for liberation: an analysis of power between groups. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroups Relations. California Brooks/Cole.
DOI : 10.1177/0959353599009003003
Ariès, P. & Duby, G. (1985). História da vida privada, 1: Do Império Romano ao ano mil. Companhia de Bolso.
Baker, C. N. (2005). Images of Women’s Sexuality in Advertisements: A Content Analysis of Black-and White-Oriented Women’s and Men’s Magazines. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 52(1-2), 13–27.
Beauvoir, S. (1949). O Segundo Sexo. Quetzal.
Benhabib, S. (1992). Models of Public Space: Hannah Arendt, the Liberal Tradition, and Jürgen Habermas. In C. Calhoun (Ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere (pp. 73–98). MIT Press.
Berger, P. L. & Luckman, T. (1973[1966]). A construção social da realidade. Vozes.
Bessenoff, G. R. & Del Priore, R. E. (2007). Women, Weight, and Age: Social Comparison to Magazine Images Across the Lifespan. Sex Roles, 56, 215–222.
DOI : 10.1007/s11199-006-9164-2
Bourdieu, P. (1997). Sobre a televisão. Celta Editora.
Bourdieu, P. (1999). A Dominação Masculina. Celta Editora.
Cabecinhas, R. (2007). Preto e Branco: A naturalização da discriminação racial. Campo das Letras.
Coltrane, S. & Adams, M. (1997). Work–Family Imagery and Gender Stereotypes: Television and the Reproduction of Difference. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 323–34.
DOI : 10.1006/jvbe.1996.1575
Dahl, D. W., Sengupta, J. & Vohs, K. D. (2009). Sex in Advertising: Gender Differences and the Role of Relationship Commitment. Journal of Consumer Research, 36(2), 215–231.
DOI : 10.1086/597158
Decreto do Presidente da República n.º 14 – A/2020, DR n.º 55/2020, 3.º suplemento, Série I de 2020-03-18.
Dovidio, J. F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P. & Esses, V. M. (2010). Prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination: Theoretical and empirical overview. In J. F. Dovidio, M. Hewstone, P. Glick & V. M. Esses (Eds.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. Sage.
Eguizábal, R. (2011). Teoría de la publicidad. Ediciones Cátedra.
Eisend, M. (2010). A Meta-Analysis of Gender Roles in Advertising. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38(4), 418–40.
DOI : 10.1007/s11747-009-0181-x
Eisend, M. (2019). Gender Roles. Journal of Advertising, 48(1), 72–80.
Elliott, R., Eccles, S. & Hodgson, M. (1993). Re-coding Gender Representation: Women, Cleaning Products, and Advertising’s “New Man”. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 10, 311–24.
DOI : 10.1016/0167-8116(93)90013-O
Elliott, R., Jones, A., Benfield, A. & Barlow, M. (1995). Overt sexuality in advertising: A discourse analysis of gender responses. Journal of Consumer Policy, 18, 187–217.
DOI : 10.1007/BF01016511
Feiereisen, S., Broderick, A. J. & Douglas, S. P. (2009). The effect and moderation of gender identity congruity: Utilizing “real women” advertising images. Psychology & Marketing, 26, 813–843.
Fisher, R. J. & Dubé, L. (2005). Gender Differences in Responses to Emotional Advertising: A Social Desirability Perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(4), 850–858.
DOI : 10.1086/426621
Friedan, B. (1971 [1963]). Mística feminina. Vozes.
Furnham, A. & Mak, T. (1999). Sex-Role Stereotyping in Television Commercials: A Review and Comparison of Fourteen Studies Done on Five Continents Over 25 Years. Sex Roles, 41, 413–437.
Furnham, A. & Paltzer, S. (2010). The portrayal of men and women in television advertisements: An updated review of 30 studies published since 2000. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 51, 216–236.
Garst, J. & Bodenhausen, G. V. (1997). Advertising's effects on men's gender role attitudes. Sex Roles, 36, 551–572.
Gentry, J. & Harrison, R. (2010). Is advertising a barrier to male movement toward gender change? Marketing Theory, 10(1), 74–96.
DOI : 10.1177/1470593109355246
Gill, R. (2008). Empowerment/Sexism: Figuring Female Sexual Agency in Contemporary Advertising. Feminism & Psychology, 18(1), 35–60.
DOI : 10.1177/0959353507084950
Goffman, E. (1980). Estigma: notas sobre a manipulação da identidade deteriorada. Zahar.
Goffman, E. (1979). Gender advertisements. Harper and Row.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-349-16079-2
Grau, S. & Zotos, Y. (2016). Gender Stereotypes in Advertising: A Review of Current Research. International Journal of Advertising, 35(5), 761–70.
DOI : 10.1080/02650487.2016.1203556
Habermas, J. (1991 [1962]). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. MIT Press.
Hellin, P. O., Fernández Rincón, A. R. & Ferreira, I. Os anunciantes perante a emergência sanitária da Covid-19. Uma análise comparativa entre Portugal e Espanha”. In F. R. Cádima & I. Ferreira(Orgs.), Perspetivas multidisciplinares da comunicação em contexto de pandemia. ICNOVA.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Sage.
Holbrook, M. B. (1987). Mirror, Mirror, on the Wall, What’s Unfair in the Reflections on Advertising? Journal of Marketing, 51(3), 95–103.
DOI : 10.1177/002224298705100307
Horkheimer, M. & Adorno, T. W. (Orgs.). (1985 [1947]). Dialética do esclarecimento: fragmentos filosóficos. Jorge Zahar.
Jorge, A., Cerqueira, C. & Magalhães, S. (2014). PubliDiversidade. Representações sociais e igualdade de género na publicidade. União de Mulheres Alternativa e Resposta.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology (2.ª ed.). Sage
Lafky, S., Duffy, M., Steinmaus, M. & Berkowitz, D. (1996). Looking through Gendered Lenses: Female Stereotyping in Advertisements and Gender Role Expectations. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 73(2), 379–388.
DOI : 10.1177/107769909607300209
Lammers, H. B. (1991). Moderating Influence of Self-Monitoring and Gender on Responses to Humorous Advertising. The Journal of Social Psychology, 131(1), 57–69.
DOI : 10.1080/00224545.1991.9713824
Lavine, H., Sweeney, D. & Wagner, S. H. (1999). Depicting Women as Sex Objects in Television Advertising: Effects on Body Dissatisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(8), 1049–1058.
DOI : 10.1177/01461672992511012
Lin, C. A. (1997). Beefcake versus cheesecake in the 1990s: Sexist portrayals of both genders in television commercials. Howard Journal of Communications, 8(3), 237–249.
DOI : 10.1080/10646179709361757
Lindner, K. (2004). Images of Women in General Interest and Fashion Magazine Advertisements from 1955 to 2002. Sex Roles, 51, 409–421.
Lippmann, W. (1922 [1961]). Public Opinion. Free Press.
DOI : 10.1097/00005053-192301000-00118
Lobo, P. (2011). Desigualdades de género no acesso à esfera pública – Uma análise crítica dos conteúdos noticiosos televisivos [Dissertação de Doutoramento não publicada]. Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade do Minho. http://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/handle/1822/19660
Lorenzi-Cioldi, F. (1994). Les Androgynes. Presses Universitaires de France.
DOI : 10.3917/puf.loren.1994.01
Lourenço, A. C. S., Artemenko, N. P. & Bragaglia, A. P. (2014). A “objetificação” feminina na publicidade: uma discussão sob a ótica dos estereótipos. XIX Congresso de Ciências da Comunicação na Região Sudeste, Vila Velha, ES (pp. 1-15).
Matthes, J., Prieler, M. & Adam, K. (2016). Gender-Role Portrayals in Television Advertising Across the Globe. Sex Roles, 75, 314–327.
DOI : 10.1007/s11199-016-0617-y
Mattoso, J. & Almeida, A. (2011). História da vida privada em Portugal: os nossos dias. Temas e Debates.
McArthur, L. Z. & Resko, B. G. (1975). The portrayal of men and women in American television commercials. Journal of Social Psychology, 97, 209–220.
DOI : 10.1080/00224545.1975.9923340
Milner, L. M. & Higgs, B. (2004). Gender Sex-Role Portrayals in International Television Advertising over Time: The Australian Experience. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 26(2), 81–95.
DOI : 10.1080/10641734.2004.10505166
Moon, Y. S. & Chan, K. (2006). Gender portrayals and the gender of nations: An extended study in Asian cultures. In S. Diehl & R. Terlutter (Eds.), International advertising and communication: Current insights and empirical findings (pp. 343–57). Gabler.
Morrison, M. M. & Shaffer, D. R. (2003). Gender-Role Congruence and Self-Referencing as Determinants of Advertising Effectiveness. Sex Roles, 49, 265–275.
Moscovici, S. (1984). The phenomenon of social representations. In R. M. Farr & S. Moscovici (Eds.), Social representations (pp. 18–77). Cambridge University Press; Maison des Sciences de l'Homme.
Moscovici, S. (1998). The history and actuality of social representations. In U. Flick (Ed.), The Psychology of the Social (pp. 209–247). Cambridge University Press.
Mota-Ribeiro, S. (2010). Do outro lado do espelho: imagens e discursos de género nos anúncios das revistas femininas – uma abordagem sociosemiótica visual feminista [Dissertação de Doutoramento não publicada]. Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade do Minho. http://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/handle/1822/12384.
Mota-Ribeiro, S. (2005). Retratos de mulher: construções sociais e representações visuais do feminino. Campo das Letras.
Odekerken‐Schröder, G., De Wulf, K. & Hofstee, N. (2002). Is gender stereotyping in advertising more prevalent in masculine countries? A cross‐national analysis. International Marketing Review, 19(4), 408-419.
ONU Mulheres. (2019) Cartilha da publicidade sem estereótipos. Um guia para criar comunicações com modelos de gênero mais evoluídos.
Ostberg, J. (2010). Thou shalt sport a banana in thy pocket: Gendered body size ideals in advertising and popular culture. Marketing Theory, 10(1), 45–73.
DOI : 10.1177/1470593109355255
Paek, H. J., Nelson, M. R. & Vilela, A. M. (2011). Examination of Gender-role Portrayals in Television Advertising across Seven Countries. Sex Roles, 64, 192–207.
Pereira, F. C. & Veríssimo, J. (2008). A Mulher na Publicidade e os Estereótipos de Género. Observatorio (OBS*) Journal, 5, 281-296. DOI: 10.15847/obsOBS222008120
Pereira, F. C., Veríssimo, J., Diaz, A. C. & Correia, R. (2013). Gender stereotyping, sex and violence in Portuguese and Spanish advertisement. Comunicação e Sociedade, 23, 274–292.
DOI : 10.17231/comsoc.23(2013).1626
Pio, M. (2019). O paradoxo Surf: a ambiguidade do discurso e o que isso diz sobre sua audiência. Um estudo de caso do spot do detergente Surf para o Youtube. Revista Rhêtorikê, 6, 37-56.
Pollay, R. W. (1986). The Distorted Mirror: Reflections on the Unintended Consequences of Advertising. Journal of Marketing, 50(2), 18–36.
DOI : 10.1177/002224298605000202
Pollay, R. W. (1987). On the Value of Reflections on the Values in “The Distorted Mirror”. Journal of Marketing, 51(3), 104–10.
DOI : 10.1177/002224298705100308
Putrevu, S. (2008). Consumer Responses Toward Sexual and Nonsexual Appeals: The Influence of Involvement, Need for Cognition (NFC), and Gender. Journal of Advertising, 37(2), 57–70.
DOI : 10.2753/JOA0091-3367370205
Reichert, T., Latour, M. S., Lambiase, J. J. & Adkins, M. (2007). A Test of Media Literacy Effects and Sexual Objectification in Advertising. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 29(1), 81–92.
DOI : 10.1080/10641734.2007.10505210
Robinson, B. K. & Hunter, E. (2008). Is Mom Still Doing It All? Reexamining Depictions of Family Work in Popular Advertising. Journal of Family Issues, 29(4), 465-486.
DOI : 10.1177/0192513X07310311
Rosales, M. V. (2001). Temos o que procura. Imprensa de Coimbra.
Rosewarne, L. (2005). The men’s gallery Outdoor advertising and public space: Gender, fear, and feminism. Women’s Studies International Forum, 8, 67–78.
Saborit, J. (2012). La imagen publicitaria en televisión. Cátedra.
Stover, M. & Ibroscheva, E. (2020). Stereotyping in Advertising. In K. Ross, I. Bachmann, V. Cardo, S. Moorti & M. Scarcelli (Eds.), The International Encyclopedia of Gender, Media, and Communication. Wiley Online Library. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781119429128.iegmc116
DOI : 10.1002/9781119429128.iegmc116
Tajfel, H. (1982). Comportamento intergrupo e psicologia social da mudança. In Knoke(Ed) Mudança Social e Psicologia Social. Livros Horizonte.
Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroups Relations. California Brooks/Cole.
Thompson, M. J. (2000). Gender in magazine advertising: Skin sells best. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 18(3), 178–181.
DOI : 10.1177/0887302X0001800306
Trindade, E. & Perez, C. (2009) Os múltiplos sujeitos da publicidade contemporânea. Revista Portuguesa e Brasileira de Gestão. http://www.scielo.mec.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1645-4642009000400004
Veríssimo, J. & Pereira, F. J. (2006). Women in Portuguese advertising. 5th ICORIA [Apresentação em conferência, School of Management, University of Bath, UK].– International Conference on Research in Advertising.
Wasike, B. (2017). Jocks versus jockettes: An analysis of the visual portrayal of male and female cover models on sports magazines. Journalism. 0(0), 1–18.
DOI : 10.1177/1464884917716818
Williamson, J. (1978). Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising. Marion Boyars Publishers Ltd.
Wolin, L. (2003). Gender Issues in Advertising—An Oversight Synthesis of Research: 1970–2002. Journal of Advertising Research, 43(1), 111–129.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Os conteudos da Comunicação Publica estão licenciados com uma licença Creative Commons - Atribuição-NãoComercial 4.0 Internacional.
